The Movement of Uthman bin Foduye in the Sokoto Caliphate in Nigeria: An Examination of the Malacca Sultanate in Spreading Islam in the Malay World

Shuaibu Umar Gokaru; Ahmad Faisal bin Abdul Hamid

doi:10.2121/tawarikh.v11i1.1220

The Movement of Uthman bin Foduye in the Sokoto Caliphate in Nigeria: An Examination of the Malacca Sultanate in Spreading Islam in the Malay World

Shuaibu Umar Gokaru, Ahmad Faisal bin Abdul Hamid

Abstract

ABSTRACT: This research examines the role of Uthman bin Foduye’s movement in spreading Islam in the Sokoto Caliphate in Nigeria; and the role of the Malacca Sultanate in spreading Islam in the Malay World. It employs a historical-comparative approach, qualitative study, historical method, and literature review. The findings reveal that Uthman bin Foduye’s movement changed the Nigerian society first through peaceful and then through aggressive means. In the evolutionary stage, a heightened awareness of Islam in society was achieved through teaching, preaching, and writing. In the revolutionary stage, Uthman bin Foduye and his followers resorted to more extreme measures in response to the violence they experienced at the hands of the rulers of Hausaland (present Northern Nigeria), who were intent on assassinating them. Despite the fact that the Malay Sultanate of Malacca was established long before the time of Uthman bin Foduye; it is relevant in the historical context of the role military expansion and control played in establishing Islam as a state religion. Islam had been spread in the Malay World through the conquests of the Sultanate, which declared Islam as the official religion of every region under its control. The term “Malay Archipelago” or “Malay World” includes nations dominated by Malay Muslims, such as modern Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, and the minority Malay-Muslim populations of Cambodia, Thailand, Singapore, and the Philippines.

KEY WORDS: Sokoto and Malacca Sultanates; Nigerian Society; Malay/Indonesian Society; Uthman bin Foduye; Historical Comparison.

About the Authors: Dr. Shuaibu Umar Gokaru is a Lecturer at the Department of Islamic Studies, Faculty of Arts and Education BSU (Bauchi State University) Gadau, Nigeria; and Dr. Ahmad Faisal bin Abdul Hamid is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Islamic History and Civilization, Academy of Islamic Studies UM (University of Malaya), 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mails address: gokarushuaibu@gmail.com and faisal@um.edu.my

Suggested Citation: Gokaru, Shuaibu Umar & Ahmad Faisal bin Abdul Hamid. (2019). “The Movement of Uthman bin Foduye in the Sokoto Caliphate in Nigeria: An Examination of the Malacca Sultanate in Spreading Islam in the Malay World” in TAWARIKH: Journal of Historical Studies, Volume 11(1), October, pp.15-28. Bandung, Indonesia: Minda Masagi Press owned by ASPENSI, with ISSN 2085-0980 (print) and ISSN 2685-2284 (online).

Article Timeline: Accepted (April 21, 2019); Revised (July 3, 2019); and Published (October 30, 2019).

Keywords

Sokoto and Malacca Sultanates; Nigerian Society; Malay/Indonesian Society; Uthman bin Foduye; Historical Comparison

Full Text:

PDF

References

Adil, Haji Buyong bin. (1974). The History of Malacca during the Period of the Malay Sultanate. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Akiba, Okon. (2004). Constitutionalism and Society in Africa. n.c. [no city]: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.

al-Hilali, Muhammad T. & Muhsin Khan. (2015). Translation of the Meanigs of the Noble Qur’an in English Language. Madinah, KSA [Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]: King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Qur’an.

Alkali, Nur. (1978). “Kanem Borno Under the Sayfawa: A Study of Origin, Growth, and Collapse of a Dynasty”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Kaduna, Nigeria: Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Alkali, Alhaji Umar & Kamal Alhaji Daud. (2015). “The Effects of Colonialism on Shariah: The Malacca and Sokoto Experiences” in Jurnal Syariah, Jil.23, Bil.1, pp.167-188.

Allawi, Ali A. (2009). The Crisis of Islamic Civilization. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

Amri, Laroussi. (2010). “The Concept of 'Umran: The Heuristic Knot in Ibn Khaldun” in The Journal of North African Studies, Volume 13(3), pp.351-361. DOI: 10.1080/13629380701844672.

Andaya, Barbara W. & Leonard Y. Andaya [eds]. (1988). A History of Malaysia. London: MacMillan Education, Ltd.

Aremu, Johnson Olaosebikan. (2011). “The Fulani Jihad and its Implication for National Integration and Development in Nigeria” in African Research Review: An International Multidisciplinary Journal, Ethiopia, Volume 5(5), Serial No.22.

Arnbali, A. (1998). The Practice of Muslim Family Law in Nigeria. Zaria, Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company Limited.

Ashafa, Abdullah M. (2006). “Ethno-Religious Relations in the Sokoto Caliphate: Lessons for Contemporary Africa” in H. Bobboyi & A.M. Yakubu [eds]. The Sokoto Caliphate: History and Legacies, 1804-2004, Volume 2. Kaduna, Nigeria: Arewa House, Ahmadu Bello University, Zarai.

Atmore, R.O. & R. Anthony. (1969). Africa Since 1800. London: Cambridge University Press.

ATSA [Architects of Malaysia]. (2016). “Islam and Malacca: The Emergence of Malay Sultanate”. Available online at: www.atsa.com.my/publication/misc_files/.../files/assets/downloads/page0015.pdf [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 18 August 2018].

Azra, Azyumardi. (2004). The Origin of Islamic Reformism in Southeast Asia: Networks of Malay-Indonesian and Middle Eastern `Ulama in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Azra, Azyumardi. (2006). Islam in the Indonesian World: An Account of Institutional Formation. Bandung: Mizan Pustaka.

Baalbaki, Rohi. (2004). Al-Mawrid: A Modern Arabic-English Dictionary. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Ilm lil-Malayin.

Bakar, Osman. (2014). “Islam and the Three Waves of Globalisation: The Southeast Asian Experience” in Islam and Civilisational Renewal, pp.666-684. Available online also at: https://obbakar.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/2010-islam-and-the-three-waves-of-globalisation.pdf [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 2 September 2018].

Balogun, Isma’il A.B. (1967). “A Critical Edition of the Ihya' al-Sunna wa-Ikhmad al-Bid'a of 'Uthman b. Fudi, Popularly Known as Usumanu Dan Fodio”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. London: University of London.

Bardis, Panos D. (1959). “Theories of Social Change” in The Indian Journal of Political Science, Volume 20(4), October-December, pp.283-290. Available online also at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/42743523 [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 27th May 2018].

Bellamy, P. & G. Christine. (2012). Principles of Methodology: Research Design in Social Science. London: Sage Publications.

Bello, Muhammad. (1957). Infaq al-Maisur fi Tarikh Bilad al-Tukrur. London: n.p. [no publisher], edited by C.E.J. Witting.

Bello, Ahmad. (2014). “The Influence of Early Muslim on the Jihad Leaders of the Sokoto Caliphate” in A Journal of Islamic Sciences and Muslim Development, Volume 10, pp.75-86.

Benazir, Shehul. (2016). “Islamic Civilization in Malay World”. Available online at: https://www.academia.edu/24895181/Islamic_Civilization_in_Malay_World [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 18 August 2018].

Benjamin, Walter. (2017). “On the Concept of History”. Available online at: https://www.sfu.ca/~andrewf/CONCEPT2.html [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 2 September 2018].

Bivar, A.D.H. (1961). “Wathiqat Ahl al-Sudan: A Manifesto of the Fulani Jihad” in The Journal of African History, Vol.2, No.2, pp.235-243.

Bologun, Ismail A.B. (1975). The Life and Works of ‘Uthman Dan Fodio: The Muslim Reformer of West Africa. Lagos, Nigeria: Islamic Publications Bureau.

Bologun, S.U. (1985). “Arabic Intellectualism in Africa: The Role of Sokoto Caliphate” in Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volume VI, No.2, pp.397-412.

Borschberg, Peter. (2019). The Melaka Empire, c. 1400-1528. Leiden: Brill.

Bowen, Glenn A. (2009). “Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method” in Qualitative Research Journal, pp.27-40.

Brenner, Louis. (2010). “The Jihad Debate between Sokoto and Borno: An Historical Analysis of Islamic Political Discourse in Nigeria” in J.F. Ade Ajayi & J.D.Y. Peel [eds]. People and Empires in African History: Essays in Memory of Michael Crowder. London: Longman.

Buaali, Fuad. (2005). The Science of Human Social Organization: Conflicting Views on Ibn Khaldun's (1332-1406) Ilm al-Umran. Lampeter, New York: Edwin Mellen Press.

Bugaje, Usman M. (1979). “The Contents, Methods, and Impact of Shehu Usman Dan Fodio’s Teachings, 1774-1804”. Unpublished M.A. Dissertaion. Khartoum, Sudan: University of Khartoum.

Bugaje, Usman M. (1980). The Sakkwato Model. Sokoto, Nigeria: Muslim Enlightenment Committee Niyzamiyyah Islamiyyah School, Sakkwato.

Bugaje, Usman M. (2007). “Scholarship and Revolution: The Impact of a Tradition of Tajdid on the Sokoto Caliphat Leaders” in N. Bobboyi & A.M. Yakubu [eds]. The Sokoto Caliphate: History and Legacies, 1804-2004. Kaduna, Nigeria: Ahmadu Bello University.

Buckley, Peter J. (2016). “Historical Research Approaches to the Analysis of Internationalisation” in Management International Review, Volume 56, Issue 6 [December], pp.879-900. Available online also at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11575-016-0300-0 [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 9 September 2018].

Bunza, Mukhtar Umar. (2004). “The Sokoto Caliphate After Two Hundred Years: A Reflection”. A Paper presented at the ‘Ulama Conference on Bicentenary Commemoration of the Sokoto Caliphate, held at the Attahiru Dalhatu Bafarawa Institute of Qur’an and General Studies, Sokoto, Nigeria.

Bunza, Mukhtar Umar. (2011). “Initiative for Quality of Sustainable Development: A Model from an African Islamic Polity, Sokoto Caliphate, Nigeria”. A Paper for the CIPS (Conference on Islamic Political System), organized by ILMUAN (the National Scholars Association), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Burns, Alan. (1972). History of Nigeria. London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.

Chafe, Kabiru S. (1994). “Challenges to the Hegemony of the Sokoto Caliphate: A Preliminary Examination” in Frobenius Institute, pp.99-106.

Chafe, Kabiru S. (2006). “The Sokoto Caliphate: History and Legacies, 1804-2004” in H. Bobboyi & A.M. Yakubu [eds]. Remarks on the Hisotriography of the Sokoto Caliphate, Volume 2. Kaduna, Nigeria: Arewa House, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, pp.317-327.

Chafe, Kabiru S. (2007). “Remarks on the Historiography of the Sokoto Caliphate” in H. Bobboyi & A.M. Yakubu [eds]. The Sokoto Caliphate: History and Legacies, 1804-2004, Volume 2. Kaduna, Nigeria: Ahmadu Bello Univeristy.

Coedes, George. (1968). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

COP [Clarendon Oxford Press]. (1989). The Oxford English Dictionary, Volume X. UK [United Kongdom]: Clarendon Oxford Press, second edition.

Creswell, John W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. London and Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2nd edition.

Christy, T. (1975). “The Methodology of Historical Research” in Nursing Research, Volume 24, pp.189-192.

Doi, Abdurrahman I. (1992). Islam in a Multi-Religious Society in Nigeria: A Case Study. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: A.S. Noordeen.

El-Masri, Fathi. (1963). “The Life of Shaykh ‘Uthman Dan Fodio Before the Jihad” in JHSN: Journal of Historical Studies Nigeria, Vol.2, No.4, pp.435-444.

“Evolutionary”. Available online at: www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/evolutionary [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 4 January 2019].

Ezzati, Abdul-Fazl. (1979). An Introduction to the History of the Spread of Islam. Lagos, Nigeria: Islamic Publications Bureau.

Fage, J.A. (1988). A History of Africa. London: Unwin Hyman, 2nd edition.

Feener, R. Michael & Anna M. Gade. (1998). Patterns of Islamization in Indonesia: A Curriculum Unit for Post-Secondary Level Educators. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program Outreach. Available online also at: https://seap.einaudi.cornell.edu/sites/seap/files/IslamIndo.pdf [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 9 September 2018].

Foduye, Abdullahi bin. (1985). Kitab al-Farq Bayna Wilayat Ahl-al-Islam wa Bayna Wilayat Ahl al-Kufr. Nigeria: Sokoto State Government, translated and edited by Hiskett M. Sokoto.

Foduye, Abdullahi bin. (2015). “Hukm Juhhal Bilad Hausa: Ruling on the Ignorant People of Hausaland” in A.B. Yahya & Y.I. Nabingo [eds]. Selected Writings of Uthman bin Foduye, Volume 1. Gada-Biyu, Gusau, Nigeria: Iqra' Publishing House,.

Foduye, Uthman bin. (n.y.). Tanbih al-Ikhwan ala Jawaz Ittikhaz al-Majlis li Ajli Ta’alim al-Niswan Ilm Furud al-A’ayan min Din Allah Ta’al al-Rahman. Sokoto, Nigeria: n.p. [no publisher], edidet by Bukhari Sokoto.

Foduye, Uthman bin. (1961). Tanbih al-Ikhwan. Khartoum, Sudan: Khartoum University Press, translated by A.D.H. Bivar.

Foduye, Uthman bin. (1976). BayÉn WujËb al-Hijra ÑÑala al-ÑbÉd. Khartoum, Sudan: Khartoum University Press, translated by F.H. El-Masri.

Foduye, Abdullahi bin. (2006). “Tazyin al-Waraqat: Decorating Pages with Some of My Poems” in Abubakar Buba Luwa & Sulaiman Musa [eds]. Selected Writings of Shaykh Abdullah ibn Foduye, Volume 2. Gida-Biyu, Gusau, Nigeria: Iqra’ Publishing House.

Foduye, Uthman bin. (2013). IhyÉ’ al-Sunnah Wa IkhmÉd al-BidÑah: Reviving the Sunnah and Suppressing the Innovation, Volume 1. Gada-Biyu, Gusau, Nigeria: Iqra’ Publishing House, translated by Abdul-Hafeez Isma’il Ojoye et al. and edited by A.B. Yahya.

Gada, Ahmad Moi. (2010). A Short History of Early Islamic Scholarship in Hausaland. Sokoto, Nigeria: Department of Islamic Studies, Usmanu Danfodiyo University.

Gwandu, A.A. (2000). “Aspects of the Administration of Justice in the Sokoto Caliphate and Shaykh’s Abdullahi bin Foduye’s Contribution to it” in S.K. Rashid [ed]. Islamic Law in Nigeria: Application and Teaching. Lagos: Islamic Publications Bureau.

Gwandu, Abubakar A. (2006). “The Vision and Mission of Shaykh Abdullahi Fodio” in H. Bobboyi & A.M. Yakubu [eds]. The Sokoto Caliphate: History and Legacies, 1804-2004, Volume 2. Kaduna, Nigerai: Arewa House, Ahmadu Bello University.

Hakim, Besim S. (2006). “Rules for Built Environment in 19th Century Northern Nigeria” in A Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, Vol.23, No.1, pp.1-26. Available online also at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/43030756 [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malasia: 5th March 2018].

Halim, Asyqin Abdul et al. (2012). “Ibn Khaldun’s Theory of ‘Asabiyyah and its Application in Modern Muslim Society” in Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, Volume 11(9), pp.1232-1237.

Hamani, Djibo. (2007). L'Islam au Soudan Central: Histoire de l'Islam au Niger de Vile au XIXe Siècle. Paris: L'Harmattan.

Haykal, Muhammad Husayn. (2008). The Life of Muhammad. Selangor, Malaysia: Islamic Book Trust, Translation.

Hiskett, Marveyn. (1994). The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usuman Dan Fodio, Islam, and Society in Africa. USA [United States of America]: Northwestern University Press.

Ibrahim, Yakubu Yahaya. (2000). “The Concept and Application of Radd al-Mazalim in Historical Perspective: A Case Study of Sokoto Caliphate”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Sokoto, Nigeria: Postgraduate School, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto.

Ishak, Mohd Shuhaimi bin Haji. (2014). “Nusantara and Islam: A Study of the History and Challenges in the Preservation of Faith and Identity” in Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, Volume 8(9), pp.351-359. Available online also at: http://www.ajbasweb.com/old/ajbas/2014/June/351-359.pdf [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 2 September 2018].

Ishak, Mohd Shuhaimi bin Haji & Osman Chuah Abdullah. (2012). “Islam and the Malay World: An Insight into the Assimilation of Islamic Values” in World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization, Volume 2(2), pp.58-65. Available online also at: https://idosi.org/wjihc/wjihc2(2)12/1.pdf [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 2 September 2018].

Islahi, Abdul Azim. (2015). “Shehu Usman Dan Fodio and His Economic Ideas”. Munich Personal Respect Archive. Jeddah: Islamic Economics Institute, King AbduAziz University.

Ismail, Alice Sabrina. (2008). “The Influence of Islamic Political Ideology on the Design of State Mosques in West Malaysia. 1957-2003”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland University of Technology. Available online also at: https://eprints.qut.edu.au/19371/1/Alice_Ismail_Thesis.pdf [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 16 September 2018].

Jameel, Muhammda. (2004). Danfodio’s Islamic Reform and the Lessons for British Muslims. UK [United Kingdom]: Lewisham & Kent Islamic Centre.

Junaid, Sambo Wali. (2004). “The Islamic Concept of Leadership and its Application in the Sakkwato Caliphate”. A Paper presented in the Conference of Ulama organized to Commemorate the Two Hundred Years of Sokoto Caliphate, at Attahiru Bafarawa Institute of Nigeria.

Kaemah, Muhammadtolan. (2009). “A Critical Study of Islamic Religio Political Movements in Malaysia”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Aligarh, India: Department of Islamic Studies AMU [Aligarh Muslim University]. Available online also at: http://ir.amu.ac.in/8151/1/T%207470.pdf [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 16 September 2018].

Kirk-Greene, S.J. & A.H.M. Hogben. (1966). The Emirates of Northern Nigeria: A Preliminary of their Historical Traditions. London: Oxford University Press.

Lapidus, Ira M. (1997). “Islamic Revival and Modernity: The Contemporary Movements and the Historical Paradigms” in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Volume 40(4), pp.444-460.

Lapidus, Ira M. (2002). A History of Islamic Societies. USA [United States of America]: Cambridge University Press.

Last, M. (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. New York: Humanities Press.

Lauer, Robert H. (1991). Perspectives on Social Change. London: Allyn and Bacon, fourth edition.

Loftkrantz, Jennifer. (2012). “Intellectual Discourse in the Sokoto Caliphate: The Triumvirate's Opinions on the Issue of Ransoming, ca 1810” in The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol.45, No.3. Available online also at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/24393055 [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 24 October 2018].

Maishanu, Hamza Muhammad & Isa Muhammad Maishanu. (1999). “The Jihad and the Formation of the Sokoto Caliphate” in A journal of Islamic Studies, Vol.38, No.1, published by Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan, pp.119-131.

Majul, Cesar Adib. (2009). “An Historical Background on the Coming and Spread of Islam and Christianity in Southeast Asia” in Asian Studies, pp.1-14. Available online also at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5dd8/2f74dea663fb411db085996a4691d9d295ad.pdf [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 9 September 2018].

“Malacca Sultanate”. Available online at: http://melayuonline.com/eng/history/dig/71/malacca-sultanate [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 18 August 2018].

“Malacca Sultanate” in New World Encyclopedia. Available online also at: http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Malacca_Sultanate [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 18 August 2018].

Metz, Helen Chapia [ed]. (1991). Nigeria: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.

Miller, Erica. (2014). “The Role of Islam in Malaysian Political Practice” in The Fetcher School Online Journal for Issues Related to Southwest Asia and Islamic Civilization, Fall, Article No.4.

Morehouse, P.M. & P. Richard. (1994). Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and Practical Guide. London: The Palmer Press.

Morton, Deutsch. (2000). “Justice and Conflict” in M. Deutsch & P.T. Coleman [eds]. The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Publishers.

Mudasiru, Sherif. (2017). “Sokoto Caliphate: It’s Rise and Fall”. Unpublished Master of Arts Dissertation. Gombak, Malaysia: International Islamic University of Malaysia.

Muffett, D.J.M. (1964). Concerning Brave Captains: A History of Lord Lugard's Conquest of Hausaland Being a History of the British Occupation of Kano and Sokoto and of the Last Stand of the Fulani Forces. London: Andre Deutsch.

Musa, Sulaiman. (1989). “The Da’wah and Approach of Shaykh Uthman Dan Foduye” in Islamic Studies, Vol.28, No.4 [Winter], published by Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan. Available online also at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20839971 [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 31 August 2018].

Nguru, A.M.A. (1991). “The Life and Contribution of Sheikh Lawan Usman Abba Aji”. Unpublished Bachelor Degree Project. Borno, Maiduguri, Nigeria: University of Maiduguri.

Ojelabi, Adekunle. (1970). A Text Book of West African History: 1000 A.D. to the Present Day. Ibadan, Nigeria: Educational Research Institute.

Olamide, Ayoola Akinkunmi. (2010). “Usman Dan Fodio's Jihad:A Cross between a Religious and Political Movement”. Available online at: http://www.articlesbase.com/writing-articles/usman-dan-fodios-jihada-cross-between-a-religious-and-political-movement [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 31 August 2018].

OUP [Oxford University Press]. (2015). Oxford Wordpower (Li al-Daris al-Luggah al-Ingliziyyah). New York: Oxford University Press.

Paden, John N. (2006). “Contemporary Relevance of the Sokoto Caliphate: Rule of Law, Federation, and Conflict Resolution” in H. Bobboyi & A.M. Yakubu [eds]. The Sokoto Caliphate: History and Legacies, 1804-2004, Volume 2. Kaduna, Nigeria: Arewa House, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Prussin, Labelle. (1976). “Fulani-Hausa Architecture” in African Arts, Vol.10, No.1, pp.97-98.

Quick, Abdullahi Hakim. (1995). “Aspects of Islamic Social Intellectual History in Hausaland: Uthman bin Fudi, 1774-1804”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Montreal, Canada: University of Toronto.

Rabi, Muhammad Mahmud. (1967). The Political Theory of Ibn Khaldun. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Ramadan, Tariq. (2007). In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ricklefs, M.C. (2008). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1200. Australia: Palgrave Macmillan.

Riddell, Peter. (2001). Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Robinson, David & Douglas Smitt. (1979). Sources of the African Past: The Sokoto Caliphate Case Studies of Five Nineteeth Century African Societies. London: Heinemann, Educational Books, Ltd.

Sa`ad, Abubakar. (1994). “The Emirate Type of Government in the Sokoto Caliphate” in Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, Vol.7, No.2, published by Department of History, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, pp.211-229.

Smith, Abdullahi. (1999). “The Early States of the Central Sudan” in History of West Africa, Volume 1(2).

Smith, M.G. (1960). “Government in Zazzau, 1800-1950” in Oxford Journal, pp.141-148.

Sulaiman, Ibrahim. (1986). A Revolution in History: The Jihad of Usman Dan Fodio. London and New York: Manshell Publishing Limited.

Sulaiman, Muhammad D. (2006). “The Sokoto Jihad, Shari’a, and Minorities in Northern Nigeria” in H. Bobboyi & A.M. Yakubu [eds]. The Sokoto Caliphate: History and Legacies, 1804-2004, Volume 2. Kaduna, Nigeria: Arewa House, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Tahir, Ahmad. (1989). “The Social Writings of Shaykh Uthman bin Fudi: A Critical and Analytical Study”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Montreal, Canada: McGill University.

Umam, Saiful. (2013). “Controversies Surrounding the Aceh’s Sultanahs: Understanding Relation between Islam and Female Leadership” in Journal of Indonesian Islam, Vol.07, No.01 [June], pp.1-23. Available online also at: https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/95518-EN-controversies-surrounding-the-acehs-sult.pdf [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 2 September 2018].

Vago, Steven. (2004). Social Change. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 5th edition.

Yusoff, Iskandar & D.J.M. Tate. (1992). The Malay Sultanate of Malacca: A Study of Various Aspects of Malacca in the 15th and 16th Centuries in Malaysian History. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Ministry of Education Malaysia.

Zacks, J.M. et al. (2007). “Event Perception: A Mind/Brain Perspective” in Psychological Bulletin, Volume 133(2), March, pp.273-292. Available online also at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2852534/ [accessed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 2 September 2018].

DOI: https://doi.org/10.2121/tawarikh.v11i1.1220